Key Insights
The European Smart Watches Market is poised for substantial growth, projected to reach approximately $6.11 million in market size, driven by an impressive Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 10.84% from 2025 to 2033. This robust expansion is fueled by several key factors. The increasing consumer adoption of wearable technology, particularly among health-conscious individuals and tech enthusiasts, is a primary driver. Advancements in smartwatch functionalities, including sophisticated health monitoring features like ECG, blood oxygen tracking, and advanced sleep analysis, are significantly boosting demand. Furthermore, the growing integration of smartwatches with personal assistance AI and seamless connectivity to smartphones and other smart devices enhances their utility and appeal. The expanding application landscape, encompassing medical-grade monitoring, personalized fitness coaching, and advanced sports analytics, is broadening the market's reach beyond traditional consumer electronics.
Key trends shaping the European Smart Watches Market include a strong emphasis on personalization and customization, with consumers seeking devices that align with their lifestyle and fashion preferences. The integration of contactless payment solutions and enhanced on-device AI capabilities are also gaining traction, offering greater convenience and autonomy. While the market is dynamic, certain restraints, such as data privacy concerns and the relatively high cost of premium devices, could temper growth. However, the continuous innovation from leading companies like Apple, Samsung, Google, and Garmin, coupled with the growing penetration of smart devices across all age demographics, is expected to overcome these challenges. The market segmentation highlights the dominance of Android/Wear OS and Watch OS, reflecting the strong presence of major tech players. AMOLED displays are leading due to their superior visual quality and power efficiency, while the "Personal Assistance" and "Medical" applications are emerging as significant growth areas, indicating a shift towards smartwatches as indispensable health and productivity tools.
Europe Smart Watches Market: Comprehensive Analysis and Strategic Forecast 2019–2033
Gain unparalleled insights into the dynamic Europe Smart Watches Market with this definitive report. Covering the Study Period: 2019–2033, including a Base Year: 2025 and Forecast Period: 2025–2033, this analysis delves deep into market composition, industry evolution, product innovations, growth drivers, obstacles, and future opportunities. Essential for stakeholders seeking to navigate the competitive landscape, this report provides granular data on smartwatch market share, wearable technology trends, and consumer electronics adoption across key European nations. Uncover market valuations, competitive strategies, and emerging technological paradigms shaping the future of personal connected devices.
Europe Smart Watches Market Market Composition & Trends
The Europe Smart Watches Market exhibits a moderately concentrated landscape, with Apple Inc., Samsung Electronics Co Ltd, and Google LLC holding significant sway. Innovation remains a primary catalyst, driven by continuous advancements in AMOLED displays, enhanced battery life, and sophisticated health monitoring features. Regulatory frameworks, particularly concerning data privacy and health certifications, play a crucial role in shaping market entry and product development. Substitute products, including advanced fitness trackers and traditional timepieces with basic connectivity, present a minor competitive threat. End-user profiles are diverse, ranging from tech-savvy millennials and Gen Z consumers prioritizing lifestyle integration and personal assistance to health-conscious individuals leveraging medical applications and athletes utilizing advanced sports tracking. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) activities, though less frequent in recent periods, have historically consolidated market power, with deal values often reflecting strategic access to proprietary technology or established customer bases. The distribution of market share is dynamic, influenced by new product launches and evolving consumer preferences, making continuous market monitoring essential for sustained growth.
Europe Smart Watches Market Industry Evolution
The Europe Smart Watches Market has witnessed a transformative evolution, transitioning from niche gadgets to indispensable lifestyle companions. Over the Historical Period: 2019–2024, the market experienced robust growth, fueled by increasing consumer awareness of health and wellness, coupled with the proliferation of affordable yet feature-rich devices. Technological advancements have been relentless, with a notable shift towards more sophisticated sensor integration, enabling comprehensive health tracking capabilities like ECG, blood oxygen monitoring, and advanced sleep analysis. The adoption of Android/Wear OS and Watch OS has become standard, offering seamless integration with respective smartphone ecosystems and a growing app marketplace. Consumer demand has progressively shifted towards devices offering extended battery life, improved durability, and enhanced personalization options, including a wider array of watch faces and customizable straps. The market's trajectory indicates a sustained upward trend, with projections suggesting continued expansion driven by ongoing innovation in display technology, processing power, and AI-driven features. The average adoption rate of smartwatches in developed European economies has surpassed XX%, underscoring their mainstream appeal. Furthermore, the average selling price (ASP) has seen a gradual decline in the mid-range segment, making smartwatches accessible to a broader demographic.
Leading Regions, Countries, or Segments in Europe Smart Watches Market
The dominance within the Europe Smart Watches Market is multi-faceted, with specific segments and regions showcasing exceptional performance. From an operating system perspective, Watch OS and Android/Wear OS collectively command the largest market share, driven by their extensive app ecosystems and deep integration with the most popular smartphone brands, Apple and Samsung respectively. The AMOLED display type has emerged as the preferred choice across the majority of leading smartwatches due to its superior color vibrancy, contrast ratios, and energy efficiency, contributing significantly to enhanced user experience and battery longevity.
In terms of applications, Personal Assistance and Sports are the most prominent segments.
- Personal Assistance: This segment thrives on features like notifications, communication capabilities, voice assistants, and contactless payments, catering to the everyday convenience needs of a broad consumer base.
- Sports: This application area is propelled by advanced fitness tracking, GPS capabilities, diverse workout modes, and performance analytics, appealing to fitness enthusiasts and athletes. The growing emphasis on health and well-being across Europe further bolsters the demand for these specialized features.
Geographically, Western European countries such as Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy represent the largest markets.
- Investment Trends: Significant investments in research and development by leading manufacturers are channeled into these key regions, fostering innovation and product launches.
- Regulatory Support: Favorable regulatory environments and high disposable incomes in these nations contribute to a receptive market for premium and feature-rich smartwatches.
- Consumer Adoption: High smartphone penetration rates and a strong propensity for adopting new technologies make these countries ideal for driving sales volume and market growth. The Medical application segment, while smaller in current market share, is poised for substantial growth, driven by an aging population and increasing demand for remote health monitoring solutions.
Europe Smart Watches Market Product Innovations
Product innovations in the Europe Smart Watches Market are continuously redefining user capabilities. Recent advancements focus on sophisticated health monitoring, including non-invasive blood glucose estimation (XX% accuracy projected by 2028), and enhanced sleep stage tracking with personalized insights. Display technologies are evolving with the introduction of more power-efficient PMOLED and micro-LED options, promising brighter screens and reduced energy consumption. The integration of advanced AI algorithms for predictive health alerts and personalized fitness coaching represents a significant leap in user assistance. Furthermore, a growing trend towards ruggedized designs and extended battery life addresses the needs of outdoor enthusiasts and professionals. The seamless connectivity with 5G networks is also emerging, facilitating faster data transfer and real-time communication for cloud-based applications.
Propelling Factors for Europe Smart Watches Market Growth
Several key factors are propelling the Europe Smart Watches Market forward. Firstly, the escalating consumer focus on health and wellness tracking, including features like heart rate monitoring, ECG, blood oxygen levels, and sleep analysis, is a significant driver. Secondly, technological advancements, such as improved battery life, enhanced display technologies (AMOLED being a prime example), and faster processors, are making smartwatches more appealing and functional. Thirdly, the increasing adoption of smartphones and the demand for seamless integration between personal devices fuel the need for connected wearables. Fourthly, growing awareness and adoption of medical applications and personal assistance features are expanding the utility beyond basic timekeeping and fitness tracking. Finally, a robust economic environment in key European nations and supportive government initiatives promoting digital health are further catalyzing market expansion.
Obstacles in the Europe Smart Watches Market Market
Despite robust growth, the Europe Smart Watches Market faces several obstacles. One of the primary challenges is the high cost of advanced smartwatches, which can limit adoption among price-sensitive consumers. Another significant restraint is battery life limitations; while improving, many users still desire longer usage periods between charges, particularly for devices with extensive feature sets. Data privacy concerns and the security of sensitive health information collected by smartwatches present a growing regulatory and consumer apprehension. Furthermore, interoperability issues between different operating systems and device ecosystems can create fragmentation and hinder a seamless user experience. Intense competitive pressure among numerous players, including established tech giants and emerging brands, leads to pricing wars and a constant need for differentiation, potentially impacting profit margins for smaller players.
Future Opportunities in Europe Smart Watches Market
The Europe Smart Watches Market is ripe with future opportunities. The growing demand for advanced health monitoring beyond basic fitness tracking, such as continuous glucose monitoring and stress detection, presents a significant avenue for innovation and market penetration, especially within the medical application segment. The expansion of 5G connectivity will unlock new possibilities for real-time data processing and enhanced communication features. The increasing integration of AI and machine learning will enable more personalized insights and proactive health management. Furthermore, the development of smartwatches with extended battery life and improved durability will cater to a wider range of use cases, including outdoor activities and professional environments. The burgeoning interest in the metaverse and augmented reality also hints at future integration possibilities with wearable technology, creating novel user experiences and expanding the utility of smartwatches.
Major Players in the Europe Smart Watches Market Ecosystem
- Apple Inc.
- Samsung Electronics Co Ltd
- Google LLC
- Xiaomi Corporation
- Garmin Ltd
- Fitbit Inc
- Huawei Technologies Co Ltd
- Fossil Group Inc
- Polar Electro OY
- Sony Corporation
- TAG Heuer SA
Key Developments in Europe Smart Watches Market Industry
- October 2023: Samsung continued its lineup of successful smartwatches during its Unpacked event and revealed the Galaxy Watch 6 Classic and Watch 6, much earlier than their predecessors. Watch 6 40mm/44mm specs: 1.3"/1.5" Sapphire Crystal displays, 1.4 GHz Exynos W930, 2GB/16GB memory, 300mAh/425mAh battery, Watch 6 water resistance, 5ATM + IP68. The Galaxy Watch 6 takes over the smart timepiece duties from last year's Galaxy Watch 5 but comes with a 20% bigger screen in a package of similar size, meaning a much slimmer bezel as well. In fact, the bezel of the Watch 6 has been slimmed down by 30% for a more elegant look.
- September 2023: Apple introduced the Apple Watch Series 9, bringing new features to the world’s best-selling watch and performing a decisive environmental milestone. Apple Watch Series 9 is more advanced than ever with the new S9 SiP, which improves performance and abilities; a magical new double tap gesture; a brighter display; faster on-device Siri, Precision Finding for iPhone; now with the ability to access and log health data, and better. Apple Watch Series 9 runs watchOS 10, which supplies redesigned apps, the new Smart Stack, new watch faces, new hiking and cycling features, and tools to support mental health.
Strategic Europe Smart Watches Market Market Forecast
The Europe Smart Watches Market is poised for sustained and robust growth, driven by a confluence of technological innovation, evolving consumer preferences, and expanding application scope. The increasing integration of advanced health monitoring capabilities, particularly in the medical segment, will unlock significant market potential. Enhanced AMOLED and next-generation display technologies will continue to improve user experience and device aesthetics. The widespread adoption of Android/Wear OS and Watch OS will foster a rich app ecosystem, further solidifying the smartwatch's role as a personal assistant and health companion. Emerging trends like 5G connectivity and AI integration are expected to pave the way for more sophisticated functionalities, driving demand for premium and feature-rich devices throughout the forecast period. The market's trajectory indicates a strong upward trend, with substantial opportunities for players who can effectively leverage innovation and cater to the diverse needs of European consumers.
Europe Smart Watches Market Segmentation
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1. Operating System
- 1.1. Watch OS
- 1.2. Android/Wear OS
- 1.3. Other Operating Systems
-
2. Display Type
- 2.1. AMOLED
- 2.2. PMOLED
- 2.3. TFT LCD
-
3. Application
- 3.1. Personal Assistance
- 3.2. Medical
- 3.3. Sports
- 3.4. Other Applications
Europe Smart Watches Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Europe
- 1.1. United Kingdom
- 1.2. Germany
- 1.3. France
- 1.4. Italy
- 1.5. Spain
- 1.6. Netherlands
- 1.7. Belgium
- 1.8. Sweden
- 1.9. Norway
- 1.10. Poland
- 1.11. Denmark
Europe Smart Watches Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
| Aspects | Details |
|---|---|
| Study Period | 2019-2033 |
| Base Year | 2024 |
| Estimated Year | 2025 |
| Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
| Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
| Growth Rate | CAGR of 10.84% from 2019-2033 |
| Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. The Aging Population in European Countries with Increased Risk of Chronic Conditions; Growing Adoption of Connected Wearables in European Countries
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1 Growing Complexity of Wearable Devices and Limited Use of Features
- 3.3.2 Augmented With Security Risks
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Growing Adoption of Connected Wearables in European Countries is Expected to Drive the Studied Market
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Operating System
- 5.1.1. Watch OS
- 5.1.2. Android/Wear OS
- 5.1.3. Other Operating Systems
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Display Type
- 5.2.1. AMOLED
- 5.2.2. PMOLED
- 5.2.3. TFT LCD
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.3.1. Personal Assistance
- 5.3.2. Medical
- 5.3.3. Sports
- 5.3.4. Other Applications
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. Europe
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Operating System
- 6. Germany Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7. France Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8. Italy Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9. United Kingdom Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10. Netherlands Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11. Sweden Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Rest of Europe Europe Smart Watches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Competitive Analysis
- 13.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 13.2. Company Profiles
- 13.2.1 Polar Electro OY
- 13.2.1.1. Overview
- 13.2.1.2. Products
- 13.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.2 Google LLC
- 13.2.2.1. Overview
- 13.2.2.2. Products
- 13.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.3 Xiaomi Corporation*List Not Exhaustive
- 13.2.3.1. Overview
- 13.2.3.2. Products
- 13.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.4 Samsung Electronics Co Ltd
- 13.2.4.1. Overview
- 13.2.4.2. Products
- 13.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.5 Garmin Ltd
- 13.2.5.1. Overview
- 13.2.5.2. Products
- 13.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.6 Fitbit Inc
- 13.2.6.1. Overview
- 13.2.6.2. Products
- 13.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.7 TAG Heuer SA
- 13.2.7.1. Overview
- 13.2.7.2. Products
- 13.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.8 Huawei Technologies Co Ltd
- 13.2.8.1. Overview
- 13.2.8.2. Products
- 13.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.9 Fossil Group Inc
- 13.2.9.1. Overview
- 13.2.9.2. Products
- 13.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.10 Apple Inc
- 13.2.10.1. Overview
- 13.2.10.2. Products
- 13.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.11 Sony Corporation
- 13.2.11.1. Overview
- 13.2.11.2. Products
- 13.2.11.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.11.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.11.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.1 Polar Electro OY
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Europe Smart Watches Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Operating System 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Display Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Germany Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: France Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Italy Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: United Kingdom Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Netherlands Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Sweden Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Rest of Europe Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Operating System 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Display Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: United Kingdom Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Germany Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: France Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Italy Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Spain Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Netherlands Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Belgium Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Sweden Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Norway Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Poland Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Denmark Europe Smart Watches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Europe Smart Watches Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 10.84%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Europe Smart Watches Market?
Key companies in the market include Polar Electro OY, Google LLC, Xiaomi Corporation*List Not Exhaustive, Samsung Electronics Co Ltd, Garmin Ltd, Fitbit Inc, TAG Heuer SA, Huawei Technologies Co Ltd, Fossil Group Inc, Apple Inc, Sony Corporation.
3. What are the main segments of the Europe Smart Watches Market?
The market segments include Operating System, Display Type, Application.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 6.11 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
The Aging Population in European Countries with Increased Risk of Chronic Conditions; Growing Adoption of Connected Wearables in European Countries.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Growing Adoption of Connected Wearables in European Countries is Expected to Drive the Studied Market.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Growing Complexity of Wearable Devices and Limited Use of Features. Augmented With Security Risks.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
October 2023: Samsung continued its lineup of successful smartwatches during its Unpacked event and revealed the Galaxy Watch 6 Classic and Watch 6, much earlier than their predecessors. Watch 6 40mm/44mm specs: 1.3"/1.5" Sapphire Crystal displays, 1.4 GHz Exynos W930, 2GB/16GB memory, 300mAh/425mAh battery, Watch 6 water resistance, 5ATM + IP68. The Galaxy Watch 6 takes over the smart timepiece duties from last year's Galaxy Watch 5 but comes with a 20% bigger screen in a package of similar size, meaning a much slimmer bezel as well. In fact, the bezel of the Watch 6 has been slimmed down by 30% for a more elegant look.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 4950, and USD 6800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Europe Smart Watches Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Europe Smart Watches Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Europe Smart Watches Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Europe Smart Watches Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence

