Key Insights
The luxury vinyl tile (LVT) floor covering market is experiencing robust growth, projected to reach a market size of $29.87 billion in 2025 and exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 9.98% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is driven by several key factors. The increasing preference for durable, water-resistant, and aesthetically pleasing flooring options in both residential and commercial settings is a major catalyst. Furthermore, advancements in LVT technology, leading to improved designs mimicking natural materials like wood and stone, are fueling demand. The rising disposable incomes in developing economies, coupled with a growing awareness of LVT's cost-effectiveness compared to traditional materials like hardwood or ceramic tile, contribute significantly to market growth. Strong growth is anticipated particularly in the Asia-Pacific region, fueled by rapid urbanization and infrastructure development. While some challenges exist, such as concerns regarding potential environmental impacts of PVC-based products and price fluctuations in raw materials, the overall market outlook remains positive, with significant opportunities for established players and new entrants alike to capitalize on the growing demand for high-quality, versatile flooring solutions.
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Market Size (In Billion)
The market segmentation reveals a strong preference for rigid LVT over flexible options, driven by its superior dimensional stability and enhanced durability. Within end-use segments, commercial applications, encompassing offices, retail spaces, and hospitality settings, are projected to show faster growth compared to residential, due to the increasing need for low-maintenance, high-traffic flooring solutions. Key players like The Dixie Group Inc., LG Hausys, Shaw Industries Group Inc., and others are actively investing in innovation and expanding their product portfolios to meet the evolving customer preferences and cater to the growing global demand for LVT flooring. Geographical expansion, strategic partnerships, and mergers and acquisitions are expected to further shape the competitive landscape of this dynamic market, leading to continuous innovation and improved product offerings in the years to come.
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Company Market Share
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This insightful report provides a detailed analysis of the Luxury Vinyl Tile (LVT) floor covering market, offering a comprehensive overview of market trends, competitive landscape, and future growth prospects. The study period spans from 2019 to 2033, with 2025 serving as the base and estimated year. The report is invaluable for stakeholders seeking to understand the dynamics of this rapidly evolving market and make informed strategic decisions. The global LVT market is projected to reach xx Million by 2033, exhibiting a robust Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of xx% during the forecast period (2025-2033).
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Composition & Trends
This section delves into the intricacies of the LVT market, examining market concentration, innovation drivers, regulatory frameworks, substitute products, end-user preferences, and mergers & acquisitions (M&A) activities. We analyze market share distribution among key players, such as The Dixie Group Inc, LG Hausys, Shaw Industries Group Inc, Forbo, Tarkett, Mannington Mills Inc, Armstrong Flooring, Gerflor, Mohawk Industries, and Interface, quantifying their market influence and competitive strategies. The report also assesses the impact of M&A activities on market dynamics, providing insights into deal values and their consequences. Furthermore, we explore the role of innovation, analyzing new product introductions and technological advancements that shape the competitive landscape. We consider the impact of regulations, the presence of substitute materials (e.g., hardwood, ceramic tile), and varying end-user preferences across residential and commercial sectors. The influence of these factors on market concentration is thoroughly evaluated, providing a nuanced understanding of market structure and future trends. Data on specific market share percentages and M&A deal values will be presented within the full report.
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Industry Evolution
This section provides a comprehensive analysis of the LVT market's evolution from 2019 to 2033. We explore market growth trajectories, pinpointing key periods of acceleration or deceleration and attributing these shifts to underlying factors. Technological advancements, such as improvements in material composition, manufacturing processes, and design aesthetics, are meticulously examined for their impact on market growth. We analyze shifting consumer preferences, investigating the factors driving demand for LVT flooring in residential and commercial settings. This includes an exploration of design trends, sustainability concerns, and price sensitivity. Specific data points, including annual growth rates, adoption rates of new technologies, and changes in consumer preferences, will be provided to support the analysis. The evolution of product segments, such as rigid and flexible LVT, will also be explored, showing how these variations in product type have impacted overall market growth. The impact of macroeconomic factors like economic growth and construction activity are also incorporated into this section.
Leading Regions, Countries, or Segments in Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market
This section identifies the leading regions, countries, and segments within the LVT market. We determine the dominant regions based on market size and growth potential, examining factors contributing to their leadership. The analysis differentiates between rigid and flexible LVT types and residential versus commercial end-uses, identifying the most successful segments. We will analyze the market performance across major geographical areas.
- Key Drivers (Examples):
- High investment in new construction and renovation projects in dominant regions.
- Favorable regulatory policies promoting sustainable building materials.
- Strong consumer demand driven by aesthetic appeal, durability, and affordability.
- Increased adoption of LVT in commercial spaces due to its performance characteristics.
The detailed analysis will explore the specific reasons behind the dominance of certain regions, countries, or segments. For example, we might find that a specific region benefits from strong government incentives supporting sustainable construction practices, which in turn fuels the demand for environmentally friendly LVT products.
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Product Innovations
The LVT market is characterized by continuous product innovation. Recent advancements include the introduction of improved wear layers for enhanced durability, wider plank designs for a more realistic wood appearance, and integrated underlayments for simplified installation. Manufacturers are increasingly focusing on enhanced water resistance and improved acoustic properties to cater to diverse consumer needs. This section will discuss specific product innovations from key players, such as Armstrong Flooring’s AsanaTM, NidraTM, and ZenscapeTM collections featuring Diamond 10® Technology, highlighting their unique selling propositions and technological advancements.
Propelling Factors for Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Growth
Several factors contribute to the growth of the LVT market. Technological advancements, such as improved manufacturing processes and enhanced product features, are key drivers. Economic factors, including increasing disposable incomes and robust construction activity, also play a significant role. Favorable regulatory policies that support sustainable building materials further propel market expansion. Examples include government incentives for green building practices and regulations favoring energy-efficient flooring options. Consumer preference shifts towards durable, cost-effective, and aesthetically pleasing flooring solutions are further strengthening market growth.
Obstacles in the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market
The LVT market faces several challenges. Supply chain disruptions, such as material shortages or logistical bottlenecks, can negatively impact production and availability. Intense competition among manufacturers leads to price pressures and reduces profit margins. Regulatory changes, particularly those related to environmental regulations or building codes, can impact product development and market access. The overall impact of these obstacles on market growth will be quantified in the full report.
Future Opportunities in Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market
Future opportunities in the LVT market are abundant. Expanding into new geographic markets with high growth potential presents significant opportunities. Technological advancements, such as the development of more sustainable materials and innovative installation methods, will unlock new possibilities. Meeting evolving consumer demands for unique designs and customization options will be crucial for capturing market share. The report further elaborates on specific emerging technologies that are expected to open doors for future market expansion.
Major Players in the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Ecosystem
Key Developments in Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Industry
- 2022: Tarkett partnered with Squarefoot in India to launch a carpet recycling initiative, recycling discarded carpet tiles and upcycling materials.
- 2022: Armstrong Flooring launched AsanaTM, NidraTM, and ZenscapeTM heterogeneous sheet products featuring Diamond 10® Technology.
Strategic Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Forecast
The LVT market is poised for sustained growth, driven by technological advancements, increasing consumer demand, and favorable economic conditions. Emerging opportunities in new markets and product segments will further propel market expansion. The continued focus on sustainability and eco-friendly materials will shape future product development and market trends. The full report provides detailed forecasts for market size, segment growth, and regional performance, giving a clear picture of the future of the LVT industry.
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Segmentation
-
1. Type
- 1.1. Rigid
- 1.2. Flexible
-
2. End-Use
- 2.1. Residential
- 2.2. Commercial
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. North America
- 2. South America
- 3. Asia Pacific
- 4. Europe
- 5. Middle East and Africa
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Regional Market Share
Geographic Coverage of Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market
Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
| Aspects | Details |
|---|---|
| Study Period | 2020-2034 |
| Base Year | 2025 |
| Estimated Year | 2026 |
| Forecast Period | 2026-2034 |
| Historical Period | 2020-2025 |
| Growth Rate | CAGR of 9.98% from 2020-2034 |
| Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Growing Construction and Renovation Activities; Rising Preference for Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Materials
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Price and Installation Costs; Competition from Alternative Materials
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Flexible Segment is Dominating the Market
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 5.1.1. Rigid
- 5.1.2. Flexible
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-Use
- 5.2.1. Residential
- 5.2.2. Commercial
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.3.1. North America
- 5.3.2. South America
- 5.3.3. Asia Pacific
- 5.3.4. Europe
- 5.3.5. Middle East and Africa
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 6. North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 6.1.1. Rigid
- 6.1.2. Flexible
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-Use
- 6.2.1. Residential
- 6.2.2. Commercial
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 7. South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 7.1.1. Rigid
- 7.1.2. Flexible
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-Use
- 7.2.1. Residential
- 7.2.2. Commercial
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 8. Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 8.1.1. Rigid
- 8.1.2. Flexible
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-Use
- 8.2.1. Residential
- 8.2.2. Commercial
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 9. Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 9.1.1. Rigid
- 9.1.2. Flexible
- 9.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-Use
- 9.2.1. Residential
- 9.2.2. Commercial
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 10. Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 10.1.1. Rigid
- 10.1.2. Flexible
- 10.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-Use
- 10.2.1. Residential
- 10.2.2. Commercial
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 11. Competitive Analysis
- 11.1. Global Market Share Analysis 2025
- 11.2. Company Profiles
- 11.2.1 The Dixie Group Inc **List Not Exhaustive
- 11.2.1.1. Overview
- 11.2.1.2. Products
- 11.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.2 LG Hausys
- 11.2.2.1. Overview
- 11.2.2.2. Products
- 11.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.3 Shaw Industries Group Inc
- 11.2.3.1. Overview
- 11.2.3.2. Products
- 11.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.4 Forbo
- 11.2.4.1. Overview
- 11.2.4.2. Products
- 11.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.5 Tarkett
- 11.2.5.1. Overview
- 11.2.5.2. Products
- 11.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.6 Mannington Mills Inc
- 11.2.6.1. Overview
- 11.2.6.2. Products
- 11.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.7 Armstrong Flooring
- 11.2.7.1. Overview
- 11.2.7.2. Products
- 11.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.8 Gerflor
- 11.2.8.1. Overview
- 11.2.8.2. Products
- 11.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.9 Mohawk Industries
- 11.2.9.1. Overview
- 11.2.9.2. Products
- 11.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.10 Interface
- 11.2.10.1. Overview
- 11.2.10.2. Products
- 11.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.1 The Dixie Group Inc **List Not Exhaustive
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Region 2025 & 2033
- Figure 2: North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 3: North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 4: North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 5: North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 6: North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 7: North America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 8: South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 9: South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 10: South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 11: South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 12: South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 13: South America Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 14: Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 15: Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 16: Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 17: Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 18: Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 19: Asia Pacific Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 20: Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 21: Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 22: Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 23: Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 24: Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 25: Europe Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 26: Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 27: Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Type 2025 & 2033
- Figure 28: Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 29: Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by End-Use 2025 & 2033
- Figure 30: Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 31: Middle East and Africa Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
List of Tables
- Table 1: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 2: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-Use 2020 & 2033
- Table 3: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2020 & 2033
- Table 4: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 5: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-Use 2020 & 2033
- Table 6: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 7: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 8: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-Use 2020 & 2033
- Table 9: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 10: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 11: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-Use 2020 & 2033
- Table 12: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 13: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 14: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-Use 2020 & 2033
- Table 15: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 16: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 17: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-Use 2020 & 2033
- Table 18: Global Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 9.98%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market?
Key companies in the market include The Dixie Group Inc **List Not Exhaustive, LG Hausys, Shaw Industries Group Inc, Forbo, Tarkett, Mannington Mills Inc, Armstrong Flooring, Gerflor, Mohawk Industries, Interface.
3. What are the main segments of the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market?
The market segments include Type, End-Use.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 29.87 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Growing Construction and Renovation Activities; Rising Preference for Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Materials.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Flexible Segment is Dominating the Market.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Price and Installation Costs; Competition from Alternative Materials.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
In 2022, Tarkett has partnered with Squarefoot in India to launch a carpet recycling initiative. Tarkett will collect discarded carpet tiles from restoration sites and recycle both the backing and the yarn. The yarn is used to manufacture recycled paper bags, while the backing material is upcycled in the car and construction industries.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Luxury Vinyl Tile Floor Covering Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database
Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)
Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations
Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence