Key Insights
The South American polymer emulsion market, encompassing acrylics, polyurethane dispersions, styrene butadiene latex, vinyl acetate, and other types, is experiencing robust growth, driven by expanding construction, adhesives, and coatings sectors in countries like Brazil and Argentina. The market's Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) exceeding 4% from 2019-2024 indicates a consistently expanding demand. This growth is fueled by increasing urbanization, infrastructure development projects, and rising disposable incomes leading to higher consumer spending on paints, adhesives, and other products incorporating polymer emulsions. Key application areas like adhesives & carpet backing, paper & paperboard coatings, and paints & coatings are significant contributors to this market expansion. While precise market size figures for 2025 aren't provided, considering the 4%+ CAGR and a likely market size in the hundreds of millions in 2024, a reasonable estimation for the 2025 South American market size would be between $350 million and $450 million. However, specific growth is dependent on economic stability and the pace of infrastructure projects in the region.
Major players like Axchem Group, Clariant, Solvay, and BASF SE are strategically positioned to capitalize on this growth through innovative product development, expansion of production capabilities, and targeted marketing strategies focused on specific application segments within the South American market. Potential restraints include fluctuations in raw material prices, economic volatility in certain South American countries, and environmental regulations concerning volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in polymer emulsions. Nevertheless, the long-term outlook for the South American polymer emulsion market remains positive, with continued growth anticipated throughout the forecast period (2025-2033), driven by sustained demand and ongoing investments in infrastructure development across the region. The market segmentation by product type and application provides valuable insights for companies seeking to optimize their market positioning and investment strategies in this dynamic industry.

South America Polymer Emulsion Industry: A Comprehensive Market Report (2019-2033)
This insightful report provides a detailed analysis of the South America Polymer Emulsion industry, offering a comprehensive overview of market dynamics, key players, and future growth prospects. Covering the period from 2019 to 2033, with a focus on 2025, this research is invaluable for stakeholders seeking to navigate this evolving market. The report leverages extensive data analysis and expert insights to deliver actionable intelligence. The total market size in 2025 is estimated at $XX Million.
South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Market Composition & Trends
This section delves into the intricate landscape of the South America Polymer Emulsion market, examining its structure, driving forces, and regulatory environment. We analyze market concentration, revealing the dominant players and their respective market share. For instance, in 2025, the top 5 players (AxchemGroup, Clariant, Solvay, BASF SE, and Dow) are estimated to hold approximately 60% of the market share. Innovation within the industry is fueled by the constant demand for improved performance characteristics and sustainability. Regulatory landscapes, including environmental regulations and safety standards, significantly impact production and formulation. Substitute products, such as natural polymers, present a competitive challenge. End-user profiles reveal dominant sectors, with paints & coatings and adhesives & carpet backing representing the largest consumption segments. Furthermore, we analyze recent M&A activities, including deal values (e.g., a significant acquisition in 2024 valued at approximately $XX Million), to identify strategic shifts and potential future consolidations.
- Market Concentration: Highly concentrated market with top players holding significant share.
- Innovation Catalysts: Demand for high-performance, sustainable emulsions.
- Regulatory Landscape: Stringent environmental regulations and safety standards.
- Substitute Products: Growing adoption of bio-based and natural alternatives.
- End-User Profiles: Paints & Coatings, Adhesives & Carpet Backing are dominant sectors.
- M&A Activities: Consolidation driven by expansion strategies and technological advancements.

South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Evolution
This section charts the evolution of the South America Polymer Emulsion market, tracing its growth trajectory from 2019 to 2033. The historical period (2019-2024) witnessed a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of approximately XX%, driven by increased construction activity and industrial growth. Technological advancements, such as the development of high-solids emulsions and water-based formulations, have significantly influenced market dynamics. Shifting consumer preferences towards eco-friendly products have propelled demand for sustainable polymer emulsions. The forecast period (2025-2033) projects a CAGR of approximately XX%, fueled by expanding infrastructure projects, rising disposable incomes, and increasing awareness of environmental concerns. The adoption rate of advanced polymer emulsions, specifically those with improved performance in terms of durability, adhesion and resistance to UV degradation, is anticipated to rise significantly in the coming years. We anticipate the market to reach a value of $XX Million by 2033.
Leading Regions, Countries, or Segments in South America Polymer Emulsion Industry
Brazil and Argentina emerge as the leading markets in South America for polymer emulsions, driven by robust construction and industrial activities. Within product types, acrylics dominate the market, followed by styrene butadiene (SB) latex. The paints and coatings application segment holds the largest share, reflecting the significant growth in the construction and automotive industries.
Key Drivers in Brazil: Strong construction sector, growing automotive industry, supportive government policies.
Key Drivers in Argentina: Expanding industrial sector, rising disposable incomes, investments in infrastructure.
Dominant Product Type: Acrylics (due to versatility, performance, and cost-effectiveness).
Dominant Application: Paints & Coatings (driven by construction and automotive sectors).
Brazil: Robust construction and industrial growth.
Argentina: Expanding industrial base and rising consumer spending.
Acrylics: Versatility, performance, and cost-effectiveness.
Paints & Coatings: Largest application segment due to construction and automotive growth.
South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Product Innovations
Recent innovations focus on enhancing performance characteristics, such as improved adhesion, durability, and water resistance. The development of eco-friendly, low-VOC emulsions caters to growing environmental concerns. These advancements offer unique selling propositions, including superior film formation, enhanced rheology, and improved compatibility with various substrates. Technological advancements like nano-particle incorporation and the use of renewable raw materials further enhance the quality and sustainability of polymer emulsions.
Propelling Factors for South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Growth
Growth is primarily fueled by the expanding construction sector, increased demand from the automotive industry, and the growing popularity of eco-friendly products. Government initiatives promoting sustainable development and infrastructure projects further stimulate market growth. Economic growth in key South American countries provides a strong foundation for the expansion of the polymer emulsion market.
Obstacles in the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Market
Fluctuations in raw material prices, potential supply chain disruptions, and intense competition among established players pose challenges. Stringent environmental regulations necessitate investments in cleaner production technologies, increasing operational costs. Economic volatility in some South American countries can impact market demand.
Future Opportunities in South America Polymer Emulsion Industry
Emerging opportunities lie in the development of specialized polymer emulsions for niche applications, such as high-performance coatings for infrastructure and specialized adhesives. The growing demand for sustainable products will drive innovation in bio-based and recycled content emulsions. Expansion into new geographical markets within South America offers significant potential for growth.
Major Players in the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Ecosystem
- AxchemGroup
- Clariant
- Solvay
- Celanese Corporation
- 3M
- BASF SE
- Arkema Group
- Akzo Nobel N V
- Dow
- The Lubrizol Corporation
- Wacker Chemie AG
- *List Not Exhaustive
Key Developments in South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Industry
- 2023-Q4: Dow launched a new line of sustainable acrylic emulsions.
- 2022-Q3: BASF SE acquired a smaller regional emulsion producer.
- 2021-Q2: New environmental regulations implemented in Brazil.
Strategic South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Market Forecast
The South America Polymer Emulsion market is poised for continued growth, driven by expanding infrastructure development, industrialization, and a growing focus on sustainability. The market is expected to witness robust expansion across various segments, with significant opportunities in specialized applications and sustainable product offerings. The long-term outlook remains positive, driven by increasing demand from diverse end-use sectors.
South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Segmentation
-
1. Product Type
- 1.1. Acrylics
- 1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 1.5. Other Product Types
-
2. Application
- 2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 2.4. Other Applications
-
3. Geography
- 3.1. Brazil
- 3.2. Argentina
- 3.3. Colombia
- 3.4. Chile
- 3.5. Rest of South America
South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Segmentation By Geography
- 1. Brazil
- 2. Argentina
- 3. Colombia
- 4. Chile
- 5. Rest of South America

South America Polymer Emulsion Industry REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of > 4.00% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. ; Growing Awareness with Regard to Volatile Organic Compound (VOC); Other Drivers
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. ; Availability of Substitutes; Other Restraints
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Increasing Demand from Paints and Coatings
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 5.1.1. Acrylics
- 5.1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 5.1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 5.1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 5.1.5. Other Product Types
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 5.2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 5.2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 5.2.4. Other Applications
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 5.3.1. Brazil
- 5.3.2. Argentina
- 5.3.3. Colombia
- 5.3.4. Chile
- 5.3.5. Rest of South America
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. Brazil
- 5.4.2. Argentina
- 5.4.3. Colombia
- 5.4.4. Chile
- 5.4.5. Rest of South America
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 6. Brazil South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 6.1.1. Acrylics
- 6.1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 6.1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 6.1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 6.1.5. Other Product Types
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6.2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 6.2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 6.2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 6.2.4. Other Applications
- 6.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 6.3.1. Brazil
- 6.3.2. Argentina
- 6.3.3. Colombia
- 6.3.4. Chile
- 6.3.5. Rest of South America
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 7. Argentina South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 7.1.1. Acrylics
- 7.1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 7.1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 7.1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 7.1.5. Other Product Types
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7.2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 7.2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 7.2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 7.2.4. Other Applications
- 7.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 7.3.1. Brazil
- 7.3.2. Argentina
- 7.3.3. Colombia
- 7.3.4. Chile
- 7.3.5. Rest of South America
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 8. Colombia South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 8.1.1. Acrylics
- 8.1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 8.1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 8.1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 8.1.5. Other Product Types
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8.2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 8.2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 8.2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 8.2.4. Other Applications
- 8.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 8.3.1. Brazil
- 8.3.2. Argentina
- 8.3.3. Colombia
- 8.3.4. Chile
- 8.3.5. Rest of South America
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 9. Chile South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 9.1.1. Acrylics
- 9.1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 9.1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 9.1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 9.1.5. Other Product Types
- 9.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 9.2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 9.2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 9.2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 9.2.4. Other Applications
- 9.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 9.3.1. Brazil
- 9.3.2. Argentina
- 9.3.3. Colombia
- 9.3.4. Chile
- 9.3.5. Rest of South America
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 10. Rest of South America South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 10.1.1. Acrylics
- 10.1.2. Polyurethane (PU) Dispersions
- 10.1.3. Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
- 10.1.4. Vinyl Acetate
- 10.1.5. Other Product Types
- 10.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 10.2.1. Adhesives & Carpet Backing
- 10.2.2. Paper & Paperboard Coatings
- 10.2.3. Paints & Coatings
- 10.2.4. Other Applications
- 10.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 10.3.1. Brazil
- 10.3.2. Argentina
- 10.3.3. Colombia
- 10.3.4. Chile
- 10.3.5. Rest of South America
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 11. Brazil South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Argentina South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Rest of South America South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 14. Competitive Analysis
- 14.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 14.2. Company Profiles
- 14.2.1 AxchemGroup
- 14.2.1.1. Overview
- 14.2.1.2. Products
- 14.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.2 Clariant
- 14.2.2.1. Overview
- 14.2.2.2. Products
- 14.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.3 Solvay
- 14.2.3.1. Overview
- 14.2.3.2. Products
- 14.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.4 Celanese Corporation
- 14.2.4.1. Overview
- 14.2.4.2. Products
- 14.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.5 3M
- 14.2.5.1. Overview
- 14.2.5.2. Products
- 14.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.6 BASF SE
- 14.2.6.1. Overview
- 14.2.6.2. Products
- 14.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.7 Arkema Group
- 14.2.7.1. Overview
- 14.2.7.2. Products
- 14.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.8 Akzo Nobel N V
- 14.2.8.1. Overview
- 14.2.8.2. Products
- 14.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.9 Dow
- 14.2.9.1. Overview
- 14.2.9.2. Products
- 14.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.10 The Lubrizol Corporation
- 14.2.10.1. Overview
- 14.2.10.2. Products
- 14.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.11 Wacker Chemie AG*List Not Exhaustive
- 14.2.11.1. Overview
- 14.2.11.2. Products
- 14.2.11.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.11.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.11.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.1 AxchemGroup
List of Figures
- Figure 1: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Brazil South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Argentina South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Rest of South America South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: South America Polymer Emulsion Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry?
The projected CAGR is approximately > 4.00%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry?
Key companies in the market include AxchemGroup, Clariant, Solvay, Celanese Corporation, 3M, BASF SE, Arkema Group, Akzo Nobel N V, Dow, The Lubrizol Corporation, Wacker Chemie AG*List Not Exhaustive.
3. What are the main segments of the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry?
The market segments include Product Type, Application, Geography.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
; Growing Awareness with Regard to Volatile Organic Compound (VOC); Other Drivers.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Increasing Demand from Paints and Coatings.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
; Availability of Substitutes; Other Restraints.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "South America Polymer Emulsion Industry," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the South America Polymer Emulsion Industry, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence